A Garden of Marvels Page 32
pollen/pollinators and, 273, 274, 280, 281, 307, 310
pH meters, 343
phloem, 67, 92, 101, 198, 289
phlogiston principle, 181, 182, 187, 188. See also oxygen
phosphate, 124, 137
phosphorous, 116, 123, 125, 129, 130, 132
photosynthesis
animals and, 198–202
C3, 236–37, 341
C4, 236–37, 341
complexity of, 344
Cooksonia and, 212
and evolution of earth, 204, 209, 212, 213, 215, 222
and fruit cocktail tree, 337
grass and, 236–37
humans and, 200–202
leaves and, 189, 190–92, 201, 213
liverworts and, 117
miscanthus and, 233
mixotrophs and, 23n
mutations and, 213
nutrients essential for, 125
petunias and, 278
Saussure’s experiments with, 190–91
and Senebier’s experiments, 189
slugs and, 193, 195–200, 202
trees and, 201–2
wheatgrass and, 137
phototropism, 330–34
phytohormones, 334–35, 340
phytoremediation, 121–32
Pierce, Sidney, 193–96, 199, 200, 201
pigweed, 237
pine trees, 287
Pinkham, Buzz, 156–58, 159
Pinkham’s Plantation, 156–57
pinnules (little leaflets), 213–14
pistils: plant sex and, 249, 250, 254, 258, 344
plant-animals, 18, 19–32
plants
anatomy/physiology of, 60, 64–71, 75–81, 82–88, 89–103
animals as analogous to, 28–29, 60, 71, 92, 95, 97, 98
circulation in, 90–103, 106
composition of, 170
definition of, 20–21
differentiation between animals and, 20–22, 70
growth of, 28–29, 68, 70–71
humans as analogous to, 90–91
imaginary stomach in, 90
importance of oxygen to, 215
and male role in reproduction, 258–70
purpose of, 28
sea slugs as aquatic chimeras between animals and, 200
size of, 86–87
understanding the “how” of, 70–71
weight of, 191
See also specific person, topic, or type of plant
Plato, 32
“pleaching,” 17
Pliny the Elder, 29–31
Pliny the Younger, 30
pollen
in Amborella trichopoda, 285
of angiosperms, 288
of conifers, 285
Darwin’s views about, 270, 299–300
as excrement, 249
fragrance and, 295, 303, 307
Gärtner’s study of, 268
of gymnosperms, 288
hermaphrodic flowers and, 295–96
homospecificity of, 274
hybridization studies and, 267–68
Mendel’s comments about, 270
microscopic studies of, 268–69
occurence of, 295
orchid, 300, 301, 302–4
petunias and, 273, 274, 280, 281, 307, 310
pistils and, 344
plant sex and, 86, 247, 249, 250, 251, 257, 258, 295–96, 344
pumpkin, 86
Schleiden’s study of, 269
self-fertilization and, 295n
Spallanzani’s study of, 266
Sprengel’s studies about, 295–97
sunflower, 145
as waste of life, 261
and wind-pollinated plants, 277, 288
Wydler’s views about, 269
See also pollinators
pollinators
bees as, 273, 296, 302–4
fragrance and, 307
gnats and flies as, 295
insects as, 288, 289, 294–95, 298, 299–300, 301, 302
moths as, 300, 301
and purpose of flowering plants, 277
and tongue length, 300
pollution, 127, 129, 137
polyploids, 286
Pope, Alexander, 96–97
Portulaca flowers: Amici’s study of, 268–69
potato plants, 108, 328
Potrykus, Igor, 339–40
potting soil, 113, 114, 118, 343
Priestley, Joseph
air experiments of, 177–81, 186, 187, 188
Calvinism and, 171–72, 173
chemistry experiments of, 176–81
at Daventry Academy, 173–74
death of, 192
early professional career of, 174–77
early scientific work of, 175, 176–78
elected to Royal Society, 177
electrical experiments of, 186
Ingen-Housz visit with, 186
and Lavoisier’s work, 189
marriage and family of, 176, 179
mint plant experiment of, 180–81
as Nonconformist, 172–73, 176
personal background of, 171–72
reproduction of experiments of, 188
as teacher, 175–77
at Warrington Academy, 175–77, 179
writings of, 177, 181, 182
Pringle, John, 181, 184, 185
prokaryotes (bacteria), 204, 206, 342
protein, 307, 339, 344
Proven Winners, 314
Prussia: truffles in, 115–16
pteridophytes, 224. See also ferns; horsetails; moss
pumpkin
and Damariscotta (Maine) celebration, 149–59
giant-sized, 82–88, 154, 158, 159
Spallanzani’s study of, 266
Pyramid Farms (Leamington, Ontario), 227–35, 237–38
rapeseed, 141, 198
Ray, John, 46, 249
Redi, Francesco, 262
Reinvent the Wheel (Kassinger), 167
Ren, Jianping, 272–73, 275–78, 280–81, 284
Renaissance, 32n, 90. See also specific person
reproduction
of cyanobacteria, 205
of eukaryotes, 206–7
and how conception occurs, 257–70
male role in, 258–70
parthenogenetical, 261, 266
of tracheophytes, 210
as vegetal chemistry, 268
See also breeding; meiosis; mitosis; sex
respiration, 191, 344
revolving door problems, 129–30, 132
rhizoids/rhizosphere, 114, 117, 137, 233, 235, 237
rice: genetically modified, 340–41
rock garden, Good’s, 319–20
root hairs, 106–7, 108, 110, 114, 116, 118
roots
aerial, 31, 77–78
air and, 187–88
Air-Pots and, 342–43
and evolution of earth, 216
evolution of, 117
in forests, 109
functions of, 89, 125
fungi and, 115, 117–18
grazing for, 109
hyperaccumulators and, 125
importance of caring for, 87
inerals for, 110
Ingen-Housz’s experiments and, 187–88
lateral, 80, 88, 110, 342–43
as major cause of plant problems, 81
mystery about, 89–98
nickel and, 131–32
nitrogen in, 108
nutrients for, 109, 110, 111, 125, 126–27, 343
oxygen and, 110
and perennial versus annual crops, 137, 140, 148
phytohormones and, 334
RuBisCO gene and, 236
Saussure’s experiments and, 191
in sewer lines, 79–80
shallow, 79
“sinker,” 80
soil and, 87, 88, 89–98, 106–7, 114, 191
spread of, 108–9
starving of, 105
storms and, 75–77
tap, 80, 88
Theophrastus’s views about, 25, 28
tree wells and, 104–5, 111n
water for, 88, 100, 106–7, 109, 110, 111n, 191, 336, 343
See also specific plant or tree
rose oil, 307, 308
roses, 307
Royal Society
and circulation in plant studies, 97
coat of arms for, 44
Copley Medal of, 181
early years of, 45–46
and experiments in eighteenth century England, 93
founding of, 44–45
Grew’s plant anatomy studies and, 64–65
Hooke and, 45, 46, 47–49, 50, 59
Ingen-Housz report to, 186
Leeuwenhoek’s paranoia about, 260
and Malpighi’s anatomy studies, 58–59, 60, 61, 65
Priestley’s presentations to, 181
RuBisCO gene, 198, 236–37
Sampson, Henry, 62, 63, 64
sand, 109
sap, 15, 25, 91–103, 289
Saussure, Horace-Benedict de, 190
Saussure, Nicolas-Théodore de, 189–92
Sbaraglia, Giovanni, 54, 57, 58
“scaffold” limbs, 11
scent. See fragrance
Schleiden, Matthias, 269
Schweppe, Jacob, 179
scientist: coining of term, 46n
sclerenchyma fibers, 66
scotoscope, Hooke’s, 47
sea creatures, 20, 21
sea slugs, 193–200, 202, 203
seeds
Amici’s study of, 269
of angiosperms, 282, 287, 288
carbohydrates in, 141
Darwin’s studies and, 293
fragrance and, 307
nectar and, 296
and perennial versus annual crops, 138–40, 147–48
plant sex and, 249, 251
pollination and, 295
Saussure’s experiments and, 191
Spallanzani’s study of, 266
Theophrastus’s views about, 27
See also specific plant
“selfing,” 86
semen, 257–58, 260, 261, 264, 265, 266
Senebier, Jean, 188, 189
senses
phytohormones and, 334
of plants, 21
See also specific sense
serpentine barrens: Alyssum bertolonii in, 123–25, 128, 129–30, 131
sewage: heavy metals in, 123
sewer lines: roots in, 79–80
sex
among amphibians, 264–65
among animals, 257–66, 270
among flowers, 247–56, 257, 266–70, 271–81, 293–97, 305–14
fragrance and, 305–14
and male role in reproduction, 258–70
See also type of plant
Shadwell, Thomas, 49n
shattering, 140, 146
Sherard, William, 255–56
silkworm: Malpighi’s studies of, 58–60
silt, 109
silver maple saplings, 78–80
“sinker” roots, 80
size: of plants, 86–87
Sloan, Phillip, 39, 40
Sloane, Hans, 23, 24
sludge, 123
slugs
longevity of, 199
photosynthesis and, 193, 195–200, 202
See also brown slugs; sea slugs
smallpox: inoculations for, 184–86
soda water, 179
soil
acidic, 127
alkaline limestone, 115
for Buddha’s Hand tree, 113
clay in, 109–10
creation of, 134
decontamination of, 121–32
disturbances to, 133–34
evolution of earth and, 216
fungi in, 114–18
and hickory trees, 104–5, 111
inorganic components of, 109–10
for Kassinger’s conservatory, 246
leaves and, 238
minerals in, 87, 191, 343
nickel farming and, 128–32
nitrogen in, 108
nutrients in, 114, 125–27
and perennial versus annual wheat crops, 137
preparation of, 87
and roots, 88, 89–98, 106–7
roots and, 87, 88, 89–98, 106–7, 114, 191
Saussure’s experiments and, 191
in serpentine barrens, 124
sub, 110, 130
tomatoes and, 228
water and, 110, 113
See also potting soil; topsoil
solar energy, 201, 212, 213, 214, 217
Spallanzani, Lazzaro, 261–62, 263–66
Spann, Timothy, 336–37, 338
sperm/spermatozoa
and Amici’s studies, 269
and Leeuwenhoek’s study of microorganisms, 260
as parasites, 261
Spallanzani’s study of, 264, 265
and spermist theory of reproduction, 260–61, 269–70
spider mites, 325–26, 343
spiders, 211
spinach, 266, 317n
spontaneous generation, 262–63, 263n, 265
spores, 210, 213, 221
sporophytes, 209, 252
Sprengel, Christian Konrad, 294–97
Spring Valley neighborhood (Washington, D.C.), 119–21, 132
stamen
in Amborella trichopoda, 285, 288
of angiosperms, 285, 288
Darwin’s studies and, 293, 297
plant sex and, 248–49, 250, 254, 256
Stellpflug, Len, 87
stems
apical dominance and, 335
nutrients for, 125
Theophrastus’s views about, 25
See also phototropism; specific plant
stigma
of Amborella trichopoda, 288
Amici’s study of, 269
Gärtner’s study of, 268
of petunias, 273, 280, 310
plant sex and, 249, 250, 251, 258, 296, 299–300
stomata, 66, 107, 171, 187, 210–11, 212, 223, 236, 334, 340
storms: roots and, 75–77
strawberries, 286, 335
stroma/stromatolites, 196, 198, 205
suberin, 126
sucrose, 198, 325, 336
sugar maples, 336
sugarcane, 236, 341
sugars
cyanobacteria and, 204–5
deciduous trees and, 336
eukaryotes and, 207
evolution of earth and, 217
flowering plants and, 224
fragrance and, 307
in nectar, 289
photosynthesis and, 341
RuBisCO and, 236, 237
Saussure’s experiments and, 191
and symbiosis of eukaryotes and cyanobacteria, 207
sulfur, 125, 204, 206, 223, 231, 344
sun
effects on plants of, 93, 98, 100
and evolution of wild grasses, 148
phototropism and, 330–34
See also light; solar energy
sundew plants, 327–28, 329, 330
sunflowers, 100, 141–47, 198, 341
Swingle, 11
switchgrass, 232, 237
symbiosis, 117, 207–8, 209
Syngenta, 314
taproots, 80, 88
taste, 307–8
taxonomy, 24, 32n
telescopes, 40–41
temperature: Theophrastus’s views about, 25
Thales of Miletus, 21
Theophrastus, 24–29, 90, 248
thylakoids, 196–97, 198, 199–200
Tiesman, Dean, 227–35, 237–38, 239
tobacco plants: hybridization studies of, 267–68
tomatoes, 227, 228–29, 307, 308, 309, 311
topsoil, 109, 110, 111n, 113, 130, 133–34, 135
“topwork,” 7–8
Tournefort, Joseph Pitton de, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256
toxins: in Spring Valle
y neighborhood, 119–21
tracheophytes, 209–10. See also Cooksonia
transgenics. See genetic engineering
transpiration, 100–101, 103, 106, 336, 337
transporters, membrane, 126, 129–30, 132, 343
tree fern, 23–24, 215
“tree wells,” 104–5, 111n
trees
anatomy of, 66
apical dominance and, 335
and boundary between bark and wood, 67
circulation in, 91–92
“drip line” of, 109
“dusting” of, 25–26
evolution of, 215
fire and, 235
Malpighi’s experiments with, 91–92
photosynthesis and, 201–2
Pliny the Elder’s views about, 30–31
pollination of, 277
roots of, 75–80, 100, 105–11, 115
tenacity of, 218–26
Theophrastus’s views about, 25
turfgrass around, 109
See also type of tree
Trinity College: and experiments in eighteenth century, 93–94
truffles, 115–16
turfgrass, 109
Twining, Thomas, 96
universal forms, 32
University of Bologna: anatomy/dissection at, 51–60
University of California: topsoil study at, 134
University of Colorado: plant-root studies at, 81
University of Florida
Citrus Research and Education Center at, 5
Plant Innovation Program at, 310–11
See also Clark, David
University of Illinois
Long as professor at, 233
miscanthus research funding for, 239
University of Leiden: Grew at, 63, 64–65
University of Maryland: nickel farming and, 128
University of Notre Dame: microscope collection at, 39–40
Vaillant, Sébastien, 252–56
Vale, 129
Van Helmont, Jan, 170, 191
van Niel, C. B., 192
Van Tassel, David, 135–37, 138–39, 141, 146–47, 148
vegetable-lamb plants. See borametz
Venus flytrap, 329–30
Vesalius, 55, 55n
vines, 85–86, 88, 228–35
Viridian Resources LLC, 129–32
virions, 23n
vitamin A, 340–41
Voltziaceae conifers, 223
von Baer, Karl Ernst, 257
Wallace, Alfred Russel, 297
Wallace, Pap, 87
Wallace, Ron, 87
Wallis, John, 45–46
wasps, 116
water
amount/rate of taking up, 100
and circulation in plants, 100–101, 106
for citrus trees, 15–16
Cooksonia and, 211, 212
cyanobacteria and, 204
decontamination of, 121–32
evolution of earth and, 204, 217
flowering plants and, 289
for fruit cocktail tree, 321–23, 324–25, 337
fungi and, 117
for Kassinger’s conservatory, 246
nutrients in, 125–26
oxygen in, 191–92
and perennial versus annual wheat crops, 137
for petunias, 310